Bernstein stated that approximately 1.7 million bitcoin (including around 1.1 million mining rewards from the Satoshi era) are locked in outdated P2PK (Pay-to-Pubkey) scripts.

Due to their public keys being directly exposed on-chain, these assets face a permanent risk of quantum attacks. Frequent address reuse further expands the risk exposure, and assets under threat account for approximately 6.9% of the total Bitcoin supply. Experts believe there is a 50% probability that anti-quantum encryption technology (CROC) will appear between 2030 and 2035. Among the 26 experts interviewed, 13 believe that RSA-2048 encryption faces over a 50% risk of CRQC cracking within 10 years.